In cooperation with the Iranian Nuclear Society

Document Type : Research Paper

Author

Nuclear Fuel Cycle Research School, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, AEOI, P.O.Box: 11365-8486, Tehran - Iran

Abstract

Propelling transport means using nuclear energy (nuclear propulsion) is a significant application of this energy. Currently, only nuclear-weapon states possess and operate nuclear propulsion systems. However, some non-nuclear-weapon states are also attempting to acquire this technology. This article investigates and evaluates whether international rules permit non-nuclear-weapon states to operate nuclear propulsion systems using a descriptive-analytical approach. The findings indicate that, under current international rules and subject to certain requirements, non-nuclear-weapon states are allowed to obtain or operate nuclear propulsion systems. Nevertheless, the legal framework governing nuclear propulsion in non-nuclear-weapon states is marked by inadequacies, ambiguities, and challenges that may impose practical restrictions on their ability to acquire and operate such technology.

Highlights

  1. Cambridge Dictionary://dictionary.cabridge.org/ Dictionary/english/propulsion.

 

  1. Longman Dictionary. https://www.ldoceonline.com /dictionary/propulsion.

 

3. Lukas Trakimavičius. The Future Role of Nuclear Propulsion the Military. 2012;10. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355377716.

 

  1. Welss H.G. The new source of energy. The World Set Free, (Collins, London and Glosg gow). 1956;55.

 

  1. Carlton J.S, Smart R, Jenkins V. The nuclear propulsion of merchant ships: Aspects of engineering, science and technology. J. Mar. Eng. Technol. 2011;10(2):47. DOI:10.1080/20464177.2 011.11020247.

 

  1. IAEA, Role of Nuclear Power and Nuclear Propulsion in Peaceful Exploration of Space. (IAEA, Vienna, 2005).

 

7. Shea T.E. The Nonproliferation and Disarmament-Challenges-of-Naval-Nuclear-propulsion. Federation of American Scientists. 2017;2-8.

 

  1. Eichensehr K.E. The United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom Announce “AUKUS” Alliance Focused on Indo-Pacific Security. The Am. J. Int. law. 2022;116(1):165. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1017/ ajil.2021.69. 

 

  1. International Atomic Energy Agency. In https:www. iaea.orgabout/governance/list-of-member-states.

 

  1. David Fischer. History of International Atomic Energy Agency: First fifty years. (IAEA, Vienna. 1997;35.

 

  1. Bechhoefer B.G, Stein E. Atoms for for Peace: The New International Atomic Energy Agency. Michigan Law Review. 1957;55(6):756.

 

  1. Paul C. Szasz, Law and Practice of International Atomic Energy: IAEA Legal Series No.7. (IAEA), Vienna. 1970.

 

  1. Gorove S. Distinguishing peaceful from Military Uses of Atomic Energy: Some facts and Consideration. Ohio State Law Journal. 1969;30:498.

 

  1. UNODA (United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs). http://treaties.un oda.org/t/npt.

 

  1. Suleman A.M. Bargaining in the Shadow of Violence: The NPT, IAEA, and Nuclear NonProliferation Negotiations. Berkeliy J. of Int. Law. 2008;26(1):214.

 

  1. China Strategic Planning Research Institute (CSPRI). https://www.atoinfo.com.cn/zhzlghyjzy/yjbg/1236792/index.html.

 

  1. Willrich M. Non-Proliferation Treaty: framework for nuclear arms control. (Michie Publishing Co. Virginia,1969).

 

  1. Lotus S.S. (France v Turkey) (Judgment) PCIJ Rep Series A No 10. 1927;10-12.

 

  1. Arms Control Association. https://www.armscont rol. org/factsheets/IAEA Safeguards.

 

  1. Desjardins M.F, Rauf T. Opening Pandora Box? Nuclear- Powered submarines and Spread of Nuclear Weapons. In https://www.ceasefire.ca/wpcontent/ uloads/2021/09/Aurrora8SSNadora8SSNandNPT.pdf.

 

  1. Rauf T. Crashing Nuclear Submarines Through IAEA Safeguards. 2022;3. In https://toda.org/assets/ files/resources/policy-briefs/t-pb-122_tariq-rauf. pdf.

 

22. Heinonen O. Nuclear Submarine Program Surfaces in Iran https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/ nuclear- submarine-program-surfaces-iran.

 

  1. Dörr O, Schmalenbach K. Editors Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties: A commentary. Second Edition. (Springer, Berlin, 2018).

 

24. Shea T.E. The Nonproliferation-and Disarmament Challenges-of-Naval-Nuclear- Propulsion. Federation of American Scientists. 2017;4.

 

  1. Carlson J. IAEA Safeguards, the Naval “Loophole” and the. AUKUS Proposal, 2021;2. https://vcdnp. org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Safeguards-and-naval-fuel-JC-211008.pdf.

 

  1. Barnes J.A, Markinda S.M. Testing the limits of international society? Trust, AUKUS and Indo-Pacific security. International Affairs. 2022;98(4).

 

27. Iran press, 22 November 2022. //iranpress.com/ content/59683/aukus-increases-risk-nuclear proli-feration tion-spox.

 

  1. China Strategic Planning Research Institute(CSPRI). https://www.atoinfo.com.cn/zhzlghyjzy/yjbg/1236792/index.html.

 

29. China thwarts AUKUS-related amendment at tempts on legitimizing nuclear sub marine deal at IAEA conference. GLOBAL Times, 1 October 2022.

 

  1. IAEA chief: Aukus could set precedent for pursuit of nuclear submarines, The guardian, 20 October 2021.

 

  1. Naval nuclear propulsion: Australia, Report by the Director General, GOV/INF/2023/10 Date: 31 May 2023.

Keywords

  1. Cambridge Dictionary://dictionary.cabridge.org/ Dictionary/english/propulsion.

 

  1. Longman Dictionary. https://www.ldoceonline.com /dictionary/propulsion.

 

3. Lukas Trakimavičius. The Future Role of Nuclear Propulsion the Military. 2012;10. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355377716.

 

  1. Welss H.G. The new source of energy. The World Set Free, (Collins, London and Glosg gow). 1956;55.

 

  1. Carlton J.S, Smart R, Jenkins V. The nuclear propulsion of merchant ships: Aspects of engineering, science and technology. J. Mar. Eng. Technol. 2011;10(2):47. DOI:10.1080/20464177.2 011.11020247.

 

  1. IAEA, Role of Nuclear Power and Nuclear Propulsion in Peaceful Exploration of Space. (IAEA, Vienna, 2005).

 

7. Shea T.E. The Nonproliferation and Disarmament-Challenges-of-Naval-Nuclear-propulsion. Federation of American Scientists. 2017;2-8.

 

  1. Eichensehr K.E. The United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom Announce “AUKUS” Alliance Focused on Indo-Pacific Security. The Am. J. Int. law. 2022;116(1):165. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1017/ ajil.2021.69. 

 

  1. International Atomic Energy Agency. In https:www. iaea.orgabout/governance/list-of-member-states.

 

  1. David Fischer. History of International Atomic Energy Agency: First fifty years. (IAEA, Vienna. 1997;35.

 

  1. Bechhoefer B.G, Stein E. Atoms for for Peace: The New International Atomic Energy Agency. Michigan Law Review. 1957;55(6):756.

 

  1. Paul C. Szasz, Law and Practice of International Atomic Energy: IAEA Legal Series No.7. (IAEA), Vienna. 1970.

 

  1. Gorove S. Distinguishing peaceful from Military Uses of Atomic Energy: Some facts and Consideration. Ohio State Law Journal. 1969;30:498.

 

  1. UNODA (United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs). http://treaties.un oda.org/t/npt.

 

  1. Suleman A.M. Bargaining in the Shadow of Violence: The NPT, IAEA, and Nuclear NonProliferation Negotiations. Berkeliy J. of Int. Law. 2008;26(1):214.

 

  1. China Strategic Planning Research Institute (CSPRI). https://www.atoinfo.com.cn/zhzlghyjzy/yjbg/1236792/index.html.

 

  1. Willrich M. Non-Proliferation Treaty: framework for nuclear arms control. (Michie Publishing Co. Virginia,1969).

 

  1. Lotus S.S. (France v Turkey) (Judgment) PCIJ Rep Series A No 10. 1927;10-12.

 

  1. Arms Control Association. https://www.armscont rol. org/factsheets/IAEA Safeguards.

 

  1. Desjardins M.F, Rauf T. Opening Pandora Box? Nuclear- Powered submarines and Spread of Nuclear Weapons. In https://www.ceasefire.ca/wpcontent/ uloads/2021/09/Aurrora8SSNadora8SSNandNPT.pdf.

 

  1. Rauf T. Crashing Nuclear Submarines Through IAEA Safeguards. 2022;3. In https://toda.org/assets/ files/resources/policy-briefs/t-pb-122_tariq-rauf. pdf.

 

22. Heinonen O. Nuclear Submarine Program Surfaces in Iran https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/ nuclear- submarine-program-surfaces-iran.

 

  1. Dörr O, Schmalenbach K. Editors Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties: A commentary. Second Edition. (Springer, Berlin, 2018).

 

24. Shea T.E. The Nonproliferation-and Disarmament Challenges-of-Naval-Nuclear- Propulsion. Federation of American Scientists. 2017;4.

 

  1. Carlson J. IAEA Safeguards, the Naval “Loophole” and the. AUKUS Proposal, 2021;2. https://vcdnp. org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Safeguards-and-naval-fuel-JC-211008.pdf.

 

  1. Barnes J.A, Markinda S.M. Testing the limits of international society? Trust, AUKUS and Indo-Pacific security. International Affairs. 2022;98(4).

 

27. Iran press, 22 November 2022. //iranpress.com/ content/59683/aukus-increases-risk-nuclear proli-feration tion-spox.

 

  1. China Strategic Planning Research Institute(CSPRI). https://www.atoinfo.com.cn/zhzlghyjzy/yjbg/1236792/index.html.

 

29. China thwarts AUKUS-related amendment at tempts on legitimizing nuclear sub marine deal at IAEA conference. GLOBAL Times, 1 October 2022.

 

  1. IAEA chief: Aukus could set precedent for pursuit of nuclear submarines, The guardian, 20 October 2021.

 

  1. Naval nuclear propulsion: Australia, Report by the Director General, GOV/INF/2023/10 Date: 31 May 2023.